However, if our voltage was 12V, we would have to rework our calculations to keep the same amount of current flowing through the LED. Our duty cycle would need to drop to 14.167% (1.7V divided by 12V) and our minimum PWM frequency would decrease to 14.285kHz (the inverse of [10us divided by 14.167%]). HOWEVER!, this is cause for concern. In the
Solder one end of a second copper wire to the long lead of the red LED. The long lead is the cathode (positive) lead of the LED. Hold the negative side LED/copper wire to the negative terminal of a 1.5 to 3.0 volt battery. Hold the positive side LED/copper wire to the positive terminal of the battery. The red LED will light and will not burn out.
Assuming the best case of 3.0 V and a resistor of 330 Ohms and using Ohm's law R = U / I we find that the current is about 1 mA and thus the brightness of the LED is rather low. Decreasing the resistor will help to some degree but be aware that this is borderline in any case. Say 33 Ohms will get you about 10 mA which might be ok.
In the diagram to the right, the "R" is a 470 or 560 ohm resistor, either will work for the common LED requiring 2 volts. You will need to acquire one resistor per LED. Resistors can usually be purchased in the same electronics stores as the LEDs themselves. Wiring LED Lights. The LED has two leads and they have to be wired in a specific way.
At a basic level, load resistors are purpose-designed for installation in vehicles where problems result from L.E.D replacement of standard incandescent globes. Suitable for indicator and brake light circuits, LED load resistors are designed to draw the same current as a 21-watt incandescent globe, correcting any problems with low current draw
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do 12v leds need resistors